Induction of the PD-1 pathway for Pain therapy: Dexmedetomidine (Trade name: Precedex), a general anesthetic,  increases the expression of PD-L1, attenuates acute and chronic pain, and suppresses mechanical and thermal hypersensitivity and inhibits nociceptive neuron excitability via up-regulation of its target gene, 12/September/2018, 11.48 am